Teaching and Learning English in Bilingual Education

Since its beginning some twenty years ago bilingual education programs for minority language (ML) students in the U.S. have been the subject of heated debate. The most controversial feature of these programs has been their use of non-English languages for a substantial part of curriculum instruction. On the one side are those who argue in favor of such a practice for theoretical, logical and social reasons (Chavez, 1984; Cummins, 1981). On the other side are those who argue against it, largely on ideological and economic grounds (Bethel, 1979; Edwards, 1981). The debate has been longstanding and far-reaching, drawing in academics, researchers, public policy makers, government officials, media editorialists and even "the common man and woman in the street". It is far from being resolved. At the same time, there would appear to be a general consensus concerning the other side of the bilingual education coin; that is to say, the English side. Even the most ardent supporters of native language instruction for ML students recognize the primary importance of English language proficiency for these students: "for minority language children in the United States, strong English proficiency in all domains is essential." (Chavez, 1984, p. 171). In this paper I will address the issue of teaching and learning English in bilingual education programs for ML students drawing on my experiences with Canadian immersion programs

Bilingual First Language Acquisition: Evidence from Montreal

Bilingual code-mixing is the use of elements (phonological, lexical, and morpho-syntactic) from two languages in the same utterance or stretch of conversation or in different situations. Bilingual code-mixing is ubiquitous among bilinguals, both child and adult. Child bilingual code-mixing has been interpreted by researchers and laypersons as an indication of linguistic confusion and incompetence. This article reviews a series of studies on French-English simultaneous bilinguals from Montreal that examined their code-mixing with respect to young bilingual children’s ability: to differentiate their developing languages, to control code-mixing in different communicative situations, to adjust their code-mixing in response to feedback from interlocutors, and to fill gaps in their developing language competence. Contrary those who view child code-mixing as evidence of confusion and incompetence, extant evidence indicates that it reflects linguistic and communicative competence even in very early stages of simultaneous bilingual acquisition.L’alternance de codes (ou « code-mixing ») chez les personnes bilingues est l’utilisation d’éléments (phonologiques, lexicaux et morpho-syntaxiques) provenant de deux langues dans le même énoncé, dans la même partie de conversation ou dans différentes situations. L’alternance de codes est un phénomène omniprésent chez les enfants et les adultes bilingues. Ce phénomène a été interprété par les chercheurs et la population générale comme une indication de confusion et d’incompétence linguistique chez les enfants bilingues. Cet article présente plusieurs études portant sur ce phénomène auprès d’enfants bilingues de Montréal ayant appris le français et l’anglais simultanément. Les aspects suivants furent examinés : leur capacité à différencier les langues qu’ils acquièrent, à changer de langue dans différentes situations de communication, à changer de langue pour répondre aux réactions des interlocuteurs ou pour compenser les limites de leurs habiletés langagières en développement. Contrairement à la pensée voulant que l’alternance de codes soit une preuve de confusion et d’incompétence, plusieurs preuves suggèrent que ce phénomène reflète plutôt des compétences linguistiques et de communication, et ce, même dans les étapes très précoces de l’acquisition simultanée de deux langues

French immersion and at-risk students: A review of research evidence

Abstract: This report reviews results of research on the outcomes of French immersion students with special educational needs related to low levels of general academic ability and low levels of first language ability (and possibly impairment), as well as those of students with difficulty or who are at risk for difficulty in learning to read. Studies of the effectiveness of interventions for such students are also reviewed and analyzed. The report ends with suggestions for future research and educational policy. Keywords: immersion; literacy; second language reading Résumé : On trouvera dans le présent rapport les conclusions des recherches sur les résultats obtenus par les élèves d'immersion française ayant des besoins éducatifs spéciaux et des aptitudes restreintes dans leur première langue (voire une déficience), ainsi que les résultats des élèves ayant des difficultés à apprendre à lire ou bien à risque dans ce domaine. Des études sur l'efficacité des interventions auprès de ces types d'étudiants sont aussi examinées et analysées. Le rapport se termine par des suggestions de recherches et de politiques éducatives pour l'avenir

Neuropsychological approaches to bilingualism: A critical review

Literature review and conceptual framework.Clinical and experimental studies which have examined the neuropsychological bases of language processing in bilinguals are reviewed and evaluated. Evidence from case studies of polyglot aphasics suggests that the neuropsychological organization of their languages is the same for most bilinguals but that cases of dissociation do occur. Two main factors — language specific and language acquisitional — which might account for dissociation are defined and empirical evidence relevant to each is considered. It is argued that while clinical case studies of bilinguals suffering language disruption following brain damage have been significant in isolating these factors, they have failed to establish their explanatory power, due in part to inadequate data bases and in part to weak hypothesis-testing procedures.A review of the experimental studies provides preliminary evidence that such factors may influence the pattern of hemispheric involvement in the language processing of bilinguals.The variables of age, stage and manner of second language acquisition are discussed in some detail. A theoretical framework integrating the available evidence is proposed and guidelines for further research are suggested

Toward a model of multiple paths to language learning: response to commentaries

Language learning, while seemingly effortless for young learners, is a complex process involving many interacting pieces, both within the child and in their language-learning environments, which can result in unique language learning trajectories and outcomes. How does the brain adjust to or accommodate the myriad variations that occur during this developmental process. How does it adapt and change over time? In our review, we proposed that the timing, quantity, and quality of children's early language experiences, particularly during an early sensitive period for the acquisition of phonology, shape the establishment of neural phonological representations that are used to establish and support phonological working memory (PWM). The efficiency of the PWM system in turn, we argued, influences the acquisition and processing of more complex aspects of language. In brief, we proposed that experience modulates later language outcomes through its early effects on PWM. We supported this claim by reviewing research from several unique groups of language learners who experience delayed exposure to language (children with cochlear implants [CI] or internationally adopted [IA] children, and children with either impoverished [signing deaf children with hearing parents)] or enriched [bilingual] early language experiences). By comparing PWM and language outcomes in these groups, we sought to highlight general patterns in language development that emerge based on variation in early language exposure. Moving forward, we also proposed that the language acquisition patterns in these groups, and others, can be used to understand how variability in early language input might affect the neural systems supporting language development and how this might affect language learning itself

Variations in phonological working memory: linking early language experiences and language learning outcomes

In order to build complex language from perceptual input, children must have access to a powerful information processing system that can analyze, store, and use regularities in the signal to which the child is exposed. In this article, we propose that one of the most important parts of this underlying machinery is the linked set of cognitive and language processing components that comprise the child's developing working memory (WM). To examine this hypothesis, we explore how variations in the timing, quality, and quantity of language input during the earliest stages of development are related to variations in WM, especially phonological WM (PWM), and in turn language learning outcomes. In order to tease apart the relationships between early language experience, WM, and language development, we review research findings from studies of groups of language learners who clearly differ with respect to these aspects of input. Specifically, we consider the development of PWM in children with delayed exposure to language, that is, children born profoundly deaf and exposed to oral language following cochlear implantation and internationally adopted children who have delayed exposed to the adoption language; children who experience impoverished language input, that is, children who experience early bouts of otitis media and signing deaf children born to nonsigning hearing parents; and children with enriched early language input, that is, simultaneous bilinguals and second language learners

Professional practices and opinions about services available to bilingual children with developmental disabilities:an international study

This study aimed to gather information from school- and clinic-based professionals about their practices and opinions pertaining to the provision of bilingual supports to students with developmental disabilities. Using an online survey, data were collected in six socio-culturally and linguistically diverse locations across four countries: the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. In total, 361 surveys were included in the analysis from respondents who were primarily teachers and speech-language pathologists working in schools, daycares/preschools, or community-based clinics. The overall picture that emerged from the data reflected a disconnection between practice and opinion. In general, respondents believed that children with both mild and severe disabilities are capable of learning a second language, although their opinions were more neutral for the latter group. However, children with both mild and severe disabilities who spoke only a minority language at home had less access to services for second language learners than did their typically developing peers, although respondents agreed that such services should be more available. Regardless of clinical group, children who lived in homes where a minority language was spoken were often exposed to, assessed in, and treated in the majority language only; again, respondents generally disagreed with these practices. Finally, second language classes were less available to children in the two disability groups compared to typically developing bilingual children, with general agreement that the opportunity to acquire a second language should be more available, especially to those with mild disabilities. Although the results indicate that there is a considerable gap between current practices and professional opinions, professionals appear to be more supportive of bilingual educational opportunities for these populations than was suggested by previous research

Brain Research: Implications for Second Language Learning

There has been a longstanding interest among second and foreign language educators in research on language and the brain. Language learning is a natural phenomenon; it occurs even without intervention. By understanding how the brain learns naturally, language teachers may be better able to enhance their effectiveness in the classroom

Educating second language children : the wole child, the whole curriculum, the whole community

Reúne el trabajo de varios expertos en educación elemental para dar un enfoque integrador a la educación de los niños en una segunda lengua. El estudio se ocupa no sólo del desarrollo del lenguaje sino también del desarrollo integral del niño, es decir, se examina el papel de la escuela, la familia y la comunidad. La edad de estos niños está comprendida entre cuatro y doce años,y durante sus años preescolares han aprendido un idioma o idiomas distintos del inglés, viven en comunidades o países de habla inglesa y están siendo educados en este idioma. Lo importante es que para ellos, el aprendizaje de esta nueva lengua es una necesidad para su integración social en la vida de la escuela y de la comunidad, pero también, para el éxito académico, la supervivencia económica y subienestar en edad adulta.SCBiblioteca de Educación del Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte; Calle San Agustín, 5 - 3 planta; 28014 Madrid; Tel. +34917748000; [email protected]